The tragic Hero Essay Example for Free

The tragic Hero Essay Oedipus, the classic Greek tragedy by Sophocles, is one in which the protagonist is portrayed as a tragic hero. The author does this by combining the elements of irony, personal tragedy and heroism. In the play, Oedipuss character evokes pity because of his misfortune appears to be greater than he deserves hence the reader is left to empathise with him. His actions are controlled by fate and the reader is left to wonder why such a terrible thing is happening to such a good man. Power corrupts but absolute power corrupts absolutely. Humans seem to have a common running trait, and that is one of power and heroism. The quest for heroism becomes the basis of Oedipus the Kings demise. If this power however gets into ones mind, the results could be detrimental, and Oedipus the King is a living testimony of this. Since his actions are controlled by fate, no matter how hard he tries, he cannot prevent good or bad things from happening to him. Since fate is cannot be prevented from taking its course, his actions are quite futile. Aristotle said A tragic hero evokes our pity and terror if he is neither thoroughly good nor thoroughly evil but a mixture of both. The tragic effect is stronger if the hero is more mortal than we are. Oedipus is a mixture of both good and evil. In the opening scene he is seen as a compassionate king who is intelligent and caring. Oedipus prides himself on his intelligence and it is this along with his questioning personality that lead to his downfall. These are his good sides with his evil side being that is guilty of killing King Laois and sleeping with his own mother. Oedipus tries his best to be morally upright with everything that he does, which is more than the average person does. Aristotle also goes on to say the tragic hero suffers a change in fortune from happiness to misery because an error in judgement which leaves the tragic hero to ignore or violate a divine warning or moral law. In the play, Oedipus runs away form Corinth to Thebes and solves the riddle of the sphinx and is thus made the king of Thebes. He however marries the widowed queen and has children with her thus violating a moral law. His fortune changes from happiness to misery when he realises what he has done. A tragic hero evokes our pity because he is not evil and his misfortune is greater than he deserves. He evokes our fear because we realise we are fallible and could make the same error said Aristotle. Oedipus is flawed in many ways and as a result comes out as imperfect since he has a balance mixture of both good and evil. His fortune in saving Thebes becomes his downfall when he fulfils the oracle by sleeping with the queen, who unknown to him is his mother. Oedipus is imperfect and this is seen through his moral and physical flaws. He limps as a result of his feet being pinned together when he was quite young. Unknowingly sleeping with his mother and killing his father is his moral flaw. Thus, combining the heroism of Oedipus with his flaws makes him imperfect though higher than the ordinary man in many ways. Sophocles portrays the result, a classic example of a tragic hero in this play. Sophocles use of irony throughout the play brings to bear on the reader the gloom of Oedipuss situation. We constantly find Oedipus trying to escape the Oracle, but in doing so, ends up fulfilling it. This is seen when he says in the opening scene Everybody everywhere knows who I am. This ironic statement is said in the opening scene of the play when Oedipus comes out to meet the people. His true identity is unknown to him but he exclaims that everyone else knows who he is. Also, since he is such a great riddle solver, you would think he would be able to solve the riddle of his identity but he is unable to in the sight of overwhelming evidence, which is quite ironic. An example of the irony of his fate is when his parents try to prevent the oracle form being fulfilled by sending him away to be killed. He however returns and on his way fulfils the oracle by killing his father and later on marrying his mother. It seems strange to the reader that Oedipus is not more careful about what he does. For example, when he killed king Laois at the crossroads, he should have realised with the oracle in mind that anybody he kills is likely to be his father. He however reacts carelessly by succumbing to his emotions when the King annoys him. Oedipus returns to Thebes and saves it by solving the riddle of the sphinx. However, he leads to its destruction since he is the cause of the plague. It is destroying themes. Thus his fortune tends to be his misfortune. These examples show how Oedipus fulfils the oracle even though he is trying to escape. The reader gets a haunting glimpse into the mindset of Oedipuss wife and mother. This is portrayed to the reader through the actions that she takes. She is a woman who after all who wanted want to kill her son to prevent the oracle from being fulfilled only to find out years later that she is married to him, which leads her to commit suicide later on. She expresses her disbelief in the oracles by telling Oedipus that they are powerless, however, in the next scene she is praying to the oracles to help Oedipus to stop his strange behaviour. Also in this scene, a messenger brings news from Corinth that Polybos is dead and Oedipus should return to Corinth. Though Oedipus is pleased about the kings death since he proves that the oracles dont come true. Yet still he refuses to return because Merope is alive. His fear is that he will fulfil the prophecy since his mother is alive. Oedipus, remains a mystery to both the reader and himself. He does not know his true identity and this becomes the source of his demise. He comes to find out his true identity, but in doing so, his sudden tragic end is brought closer. The reader at this point is left to wonder, what is the way out. Unfortunately, the answer as we come to realise in the latter parts of the book is one that is not easy. Fate has already chosen Oedipuss destiny and nothing can change it. A feature of tragic plays by Shakespeare. The writer connotes a certain sombre picture and depressing mood, which is characteristic of most of Shakespearean tragedies. The employments of understatements that lead to humour are also evident in most parts of the text, and this makes for an interesting reading. For example throughout the play, there are references to sight such as, you cannot see, yet you know the nature of this plague and light, o light, light now everything is clear which are ironic because Oedipus blinds himself later on. Also, the blind prophet Teireseis knows about Oedipususs true identity but Oedipus who isnt physically blind does not know his true identity. His servant Kreon whose name means king is also an irony since he turns form a messenger to a king. Throughout the play, there are references to sight such as, you cannot see, yet you know the nature of this plague and light light, light now everything is clear which are ironic because Oedipus blinds himself later on. Also, the blind prophet Teireseis knows about Oedipususs true identity but Oedipus who isnt physically blind does not know his true identity. His servant Kreon whose name means king is also an irony since he turns form a messenger to a king There are three hero archetypes that suit the character of Oedipus; The quest, the initiation and the sacrificial scapegoat. Oedipus delivers Thebes by solving the riddle of the sphinx and thus fulfils the first archetype which is that of a hero who who solves an unanswerable riddle to save his kingdom. He does this on his journey to discover his true identity. The second archetype is that of the phase of separation. This happens when he leaves Thebes, is transformed and returns to become king and save his kingdom. The third archetype is when in order to save Thebes he has to banish himself from the kingdom to restore it back to fruitfulness. This has the elements of a tragedy because no matter the decision he makes he it is going to be detrimental to him. Even though Irony plays a crucial role, other elements such as heroism and tragedy come in the text. We find Oedipus entangled by his own principles. He is always in that twilight zone, one between acceptance of the harsh reality and total rejection of the things he goes through. The choice of the latter is detrimental to both his character and that of the people he leads and governs and he thus chooses the former remaining a true tragic hero.

Nonfunctional Requirements with Data Mining

Nonfunctional Requirements with Data Mining INTRODUCTION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The use of software has invaded our daily lives as it enable us to accomplish many tasks especially those which are associated in doing various business processes and in dealing with different business systems. It enables the use of knowledge on both computing and computers to be able to help solve various problems which confront everyday situations. The often most encountered problems encountered in the field of software engineering deals with computers and computing although its underlying causes are not actually on such dimensions, and oftentimes go beyond such. To be able to distinguish a good software engineering program, the following criteria must be accordingly observed: there is quality in what we can recognize but we cannot define; there is fitness of purpose; there is an existence of conformance relative to specifications; it is tied to inherent product characteristics; and it can also be assumed to be dependent on the amount at which the customer is wi lling to pay (Pfleeger Atlee, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the complexities and the complications confronting the businesses nowadays, the requirements for system engineering has been seen to offer a solution. The requirements are the ones which form the basis for planning the development of a system and accepting it on a completion. They can form a basis for project planning, risk management, acceptance testing, trade-off, and change control (Hull et al, 2005). Requirements are meant to specify the specific sets of features which are essential to the software or program. They can either be functional or non-functional. Functional requirements can be defined as the specification of a function that the system must support while non-functional requirements refer to the constraints associated on the operation of the system that is not directly related to a function of the system (Bruegge Duttoit, 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In simpler terms, non-functional requirements take into consideration not what the software will do but how the software will do it. It is geared towards a much wider scope as it deals more with the requirements for process rather than just the tools which are necessary for functionality. The researcher agrees to the fact that non-functional requirements are indeed important because they are able to address various issues which are important in the achievement of quality. They are very vital for the success of the system and if they are not properly addressed, the result can be damaged and they can be inconsistent and poor quality, users and customers would end up being dissatisfied, and it can also affect time and cost which are associated with running the system. LITERATURE REVIEW   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the most recognized importance of non-functional requirements in software engineering is its capacity to define system properties and constraints. Non-functional requirements can be classified as product requirements, organizational requirements, and external requirements. Product requirements refer to specifications which deal with how a particular product which is delivered should behave in a particular way such as those related to execution speed and reliability. Furthermore, organizational requirements refer to the consequences of the policies and procedures of the organization such as the variety of process standards which are sued as the requirements undergo implementation. Lastly, external requirements are those which arise because of the various factors which are external to the development process and system. The main reason on why non-functional requirements arise because of the needs from the users, budget constraints, and existing policies of th e organizations, there is a need for interoperability with other hardware or software systems, and because of the presence of external factors such as standards for safety (Puntambekar, n.d.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Chung et al (n.d.), software engineering illustrates both pragmatic and systematic alternatives in which we are provided with the ability to to establish software systems of the highest standards and quality with regards to its usage and functionality. It calls for the need of software engineered systems to be modifiable, accurate, and secured which are some of the indications of a high performing software system. However, they are very subjective making them a hard subject for the purpose of evaluation. The system typically interacts with each other making their functions affect the general system and therefore it also affects the entire system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Non-functional requirements are also being characterized for being hard to deal with as compared with functional requirements primarily because their impact is not generally localized to only a specific part of the system. Instead, it involves the entire system. The various changes with functional requirements in software will also inevitably affect the non-functional requirements. An effective software architecture evaluation is often the tool which is used to be able to deal with the numerous impacts of non-functional requirements (Aurum Wohlin, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Data mining can be considered as one of the important aspect of software system and of software engineering. Data mining involves solving data problems which already exist in the software particularly referring to the process of discovering patterns in the data. The process should be either automatic or semi-automatic and it should be present in substantial quantities to be able to reap the maximum benefits out of these existing data (Witten Frank, 2005). It can be aptly defined as â€Å"extracting or mining knowledge from large amounts of data† (Han Kamber,2006). It can be actually treated as the process of mining knowledge from existing data and not the other way around. The process of data mining could include the following procedures: data cleaning, data integration, data selection, data transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and knowledge presentation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Data mining activities are some of the practices executed by organizations, especially among software engineers, to be able to improve software quality and productivity. Data mining in the field of software engineering ahs recently emerged because it ahs been recognized among industries that such is needed in order to increase the abundance of data and they are also helpful in solving different types of real-world problems. Data mining algorithms are by being increasingly used in different software engineering tasks to be able to improve the productivity of the system or the software. These algorithms can be able to help engineers to what code locations must be changed when another code location is changed. Data mining in the field of software engineering can be done in the series of the following procedures: collection or investigation of software engineering data; determining software engineering tasks; pre-processing of data; adapting or developing algorithm wh ich will be executed for mining; and post processing or application of mining results (Xie 1t al, 2009).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The non-functional requirements in data mining could come from the operating environment, the users, and the competitive products. In the operating environment, data can be affected by the system which is used in supporting the process. It poses problem on how the software will work towards establishing dynamic data architecture. Furthermore, users are also behind the non-functional requirements for data mining in software engineering primarily because they control a big fraction of the entire program and they are the ones who completely understand the attributes of the system. Lastly, the existence of competitive alternatives affects the non-functional requirements because of their features which generally affect the quality of the system (Malan Bredemeyer, n.d.) RESEARCH QUESTIONS:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to properly carry out the purpose of the research, that is to provide an insight on the various non-functional requirements which exist with regards to data mining, the study will attempt to answer various research questions which will form foundation of the research and which will form the backbone of the study. The research questions which the researcher will attempt to shed light to will include: What is the nature of non-functional requirements in software engineering and how they are different with functional requirements with regards to the extent of use and practice in the general industry? What are the examples of non-functional requirements in data mining? How are these non-functional requirements in data mining addressed by the software engineers of today? Are they addressed effectively? What does the future of requirements analysis in the field of software engineering hold for the non-functional requirements in software engineering? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to successfully carry out the purpose of this research, the researcher will employ an exploratory research design wherein the primary objective of the study will be the provision of insights into and comprehension of the topic at hand. The research will be qualitative in nature, which will take into account significant data and previous researches which are related to the topic rather than dealing with quantitative techniques of research.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In carrying out a qualitative research, the researcher will make use of widely available secondary data and literature from credible sources such as books, scholastic articles, academic journals, credible websites, and other reputable sources which will provide the researcher with additional information regarding the non-functional requirements of data mining in the field of software engineering. Because of the very nature of the topic, first hand information will be quite hard to obtain that is why second hand information will be preferred for this study. Widely available references will provide significant researches which have been previously done and will be geared towards shedding light to the topic. It must be however understood that although the topic is limited to data mining in software engineering, where the researcher finds its niche against other works, resources and references regarding software engineering in general will also be sued in order to pro vide a general perspective of the topic at hand. RESEARCH PLANNING   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To successfully finish the paper and generate significant findings, there will be a pre-determined time-frame which will include all the activities which will be related to the completion of this research. In the first weeks of conducting the study, the researcher will focus into redefining or reshaping the fundamentals of the research given that some modifications can be eyed. However, since the topic seems to be good enough as an area of study in the field of software engineering, the succeeding weeks of the research will be focused towards extensive research which shall form the big part of the entire paper. Since the researcher decided to make use of secondary sources widely available, much of the time will be spent browsing through books and other reputable sources to gain more idea regarding the topic. Once the information needed has already been enough and sustainable to support the researchers claim and to give answers to the research questions earlier ide ntified, writing the general research based on a previously outlined structure will commence which will be followed with subsequent proof reading and revisions which will ensure that the work is fully furnished before finally submitting the work and the final presentation of the research. REFERENCES: Aurum, Aybuke, Wohlin, Claes, (2005). Engineering and Managing Software Requirements. Sweden: Springer Bruegge, Bernd., Duttoit, Allen (2010). Object-oriented Software Engineering. 3rd ed. USA: Pearson Education Inc. Chung, L., Nixon, B., Yu, E., Mylopoulos, J. (n.d.). Non-functional Requirements in Software Engineering. Han, Jiawei., Kamber, Michelin (2006). Data Mining Concepts and Techniques. Elsevier: USA Hull, Elizabeth., Jackson, Ken., Dick, Jeremy, (2005). Requirements Engineering. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Springer Malan, Ruth, Bredemeyer, Dana, (n.d.). Defining Non-functional Requirements. Bredemeyer Consulting Pfleeger, Shari Lawrence., Atlee, Joanne (2006). Software Engineering: Theory and Practuce. 3rd ed. USA: Pearson Prentice Hall Puntambekar, A. A. (n.d.). Software Engineering. Technical Publications Pune Witten, Ian., Frank, Eibe (2005). Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques. USA: Elsevier Xie, Tao., Thummalapenta, Suresh., Lo, David., Liu, Chao (2009). Data Mining for Software Engineering

The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx :: Communist Manifesto Essays

The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx    Karl Marx (1818-1883) has been established (post-mortem of course, like almost all greats, it seems) as one of the most influential thinkers and writers of modern times. The Communist Manifesto published in 1848, lays down his theories on socialism. This manifesto was used to establish Communist Russia. Although that "experiment" failed, there are still points in his work that I find relevant in today's society.    One of Marx's arguments is that the society created by the bourgeois is so powerful and out of control that it can no longer be controlled. The modern bourgeois society, he explains "a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, [it] is like the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world when he has called up by his spells" (217). His remedy for this situation was an overthrow of the ruling bourgeois society and the beginning of the proletariat society. This can be loosely compared with the current situation with Microsoft and the monopoly argument. Bill Gates has brought a problem with our free market system to the attention of the American public. However, how answer will not be to overthrow the current government, but rather more regulations. Another argument that Marx brings out that is relevant in today's society is the distinct class differences. He mentions how 10% of the people have virtually all the property. This is extremely relevant. However, in today's society, wealth is not so much measured by property but by total addition of all one's assets. In the United States today, 20% of the population has 85% of the wealth. This is evidence of the enormous class differences that we experience in today's society, which are comparable to the stratification that Marx emphasizes.    Although Karl Marx is able to make some relevant points in his The Communist Manifesto, he also makes some points that are just not applicable today, and in my view in any time period. On page 230, he mentions that top-ten list of measures that will be applicable in communist countries. Number 9 is just plain lunacy. "Combination of agriculture and manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country" (230). The reason the so-called "country" is less populated is because there has to be room for the crops to grow. The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx :: Communist Manifesto Essays The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx    Karl Marx (1818-1883) has been established (post-mortem of course, like almost all greats, it seems) as one of the most influential thinkers and writers of modern times. The Communist Manifesto published in 1848, lays down his theories on socialism. This manifesto was used to establish Communist Russia. Although that "experiment" failed, there are still points in his work that I find relevant in today's society.    One of Marx's arguments is that the society created by the bourgeois is so powerful and out of control that it can no longer be controlled. The modern bourgeois society, he explains "a society that has conjured up such gigantic means of production and of exchange, [it] is like the sorcerer, who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world when he has called up by his spells" (217). His remedy for this situation was an overthrow of the ruling bourgeois society and the beginning of the proletariat society. This can be loosely compared with the current situation with Microsoft and the monopoly argument. Bill Gates has brought a problem with our free market system to the attention of the American public. However, how answer will not be to overthrow the current government, but rather more regulations. Another argument that Marx brings out that is relevant in today's society is the distinct class differences. He mentions how 10% of the people have virtually all the property. This is extremely relevant. However, in today's society, wealth is not so much measured by property but by total addition of all one's assets. In the United States today, 20% of the population has 85% of the wealth. This is evidence of the enormous class differences that we experience in today's society, which are comparable to the stratification that Marx emphasizes.    Although Karl Marx is able to make some relevant points in his The Communist Manifesto, he also makes some points that are just not applicable today, and in my view in any time period. On page 230, he mentions that top-ten list of measures that will be applicable in communist countries. Number 9 is just plain lunacy. "Combination of agriculture and manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country by a more equitable distribution of the population over the country" (230). The reason the so-called "country" is less populated is because there has to be room for the crops to grow.

Hallucinogens :: social issues

Hallucinogens Hallucinogens mess with your brain they alter how the brain perceives time, reality, and your environment. They also affect your senses like hearing and seeing. This can make you think that you are seeing stuff and feeling things that don’t even exist. Using Hallucinogens makes your heart rate and blood pressure increase. Hallucinogens may put you into a coma. They can also cause heart and lung failure. Hallucinogens can change the way that you feel emotionally. They may also make you feel suspicious, confused, and disorientated. Hallucinogens affect self-control there impact vary from time to time so there’s no way to know how much self control you’ll be able to keep. They can cause you to be violent and/or aggressive, make meaningless movements, lose control of your muscles, and mix up your speech. It’s really easy to develop a tolerance to Hallucinogens so eventually it will take more of the drug to get the same effect that you used to get from a little of the drug. This is dangerous because taking large amounts of the same drug can lead to overdose with severe effects. Mescaline Mescaline is the psychoactive ingredient of the peyote cactus. Ecstasy is the common name used. Some nicknames are E, X, and XTC. Ecstasy is actually a mixture of mescaline and methamphetamine. Ecstasy may give a short-term feeling of euphoria but can result in confusion, depression, paranoia, psychosis, increase in heart rate and blood pressure, and cause long-term damage to brain cells. Some effects are also influenced by thoughts, environment, and people who are with you when you take the drug. Vivid changes in color and form occur. Sometimes the user becomes disoriented loses sense of time, place, and identity or has sensations of knowing and feeling what everything in life (and life itself) is all about. Emotions from the past, present, and future flood the user’s mind. Depression, weakness and lack of muscular coordination, anxiety or paranoia, trembling, nausea, dizziness, facial flushing, and dilated pupils are other symptoms that someone is using this drug. Some health problems are long-term damage to brain cells, and increase in heart-rate and blood pressure. Tolerance develops quickly causing you to need more and more X to get the same effect that one pill used to give you. This makes the risk of overdosing very high. Mescaline has no positive uses, People take this drug to have a good time and be cool.

Essay --

Executive summary This report discusses how management prepares them to anticipate change in the business environment in the long run and short run too. Change is very important for each and every organization in today’s world because world today has become a daily changing place and in order to keep pace with the changing world we need to bring about a constant change in our organizations, too. There are certain methods by which the senior management can prepare them for anticipating the need for change. The first method is by doing a detailed research and studying for the change. The second method involves having the awareness about the ever changing needs of people and the change process. The third method discusses about having a complete understanding about the compulsion and urgency for change. Lastly, being mentally tough for the change process is the fourth method to prepare the management for anticipating change in the short and long run. Introduction: Change is a constant and ingoing process in an organization. Change can be defined as one of the many characteristics of organization development. The change efforts are based on the analysis of particular problems and their purpose is to attain specific goals. Change is not an easy thing to implement and anticipate. It is a difficult and a challenging process; therefore the management has to take certain steps in order to prepare them for antedating the change in business environment. The senior management can prepare themselves for a change through studying and researching about change, by having a sound awareness about the change process and by understanding the necessity of change and by being mentally tough about the change process. All in all, a constant change is ... ...reparing them for anticipating the need for change that will be necessary for the organization. This is most applicable for the long run change because if the senior management is working for the environment today they will be efficient to keep a check on the long range changes too, that are being forecasted for the future. Conclusion: Change is required for all types of organizations and in every field. Whether the change is long range or short range the senior management will have to prepare them for the change process. The factors that can prepare the senior management to anticipate change are consciousness about the change, research and study, identifying the necessity for change and the mental toughness for change process. The senior management must possess these factors in order to prepare them for anticipating the long range as well as the short range change.

Behaviorist BF Skinner

Behaviorist BF Skinner’s work with behavior analysis which led him to develop his theory surrounding operant conditioning methods have had a profound impact on today’s educational system as it led him to research the method of programmed instruction; its use in contemporary education has shaped the minds of countless students and offered an alternative method of teaching through its concept of trying to achieve errorless learning through swift feedback. BF Skinner, the renowned psychologist was known for his controversial scientific approach to human behavior.(Pierce & Cheney, 2003, p.9) The 1938 publication The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis became Skinner’s first professional work and contained almost 400 pages of the behaviorist’s research. It has since been described as â€Å"a significant volume in the history of the twentieth-century psychology. † (Todd & Morris, 1995, p. 7) He wrote a number of books and essays focusing on hi s philosophy of behaviorism; however two of the most notable are Science and Behavior and Verbal Behavior. (Todd & Morris, 1995, p. xxi)His theories offered a contemporary definition to the study of behavior and were not well received by his peers. Skinner proposed a â€Å"natural-science approach to human behavior† (Pierce & Cheney, 2004, p. 9) and this contradicted other accepted theories. He believed that the behavior of an organism was determined and a result of genetic and environmental factors. His hypothesis alleged that behavior caused emotions and described them as â€Å"additional activities of people that needed to be explained. † (Pierce & Cheney, 2004, p.9)The opposition believed that human behavior was a product of self-determination – a result of our feelings, thoughts and intentions. Skinner’s achievements were endless; however he’s most noted for his work with experimental behavior analysis, where he developed the theory surroundin g Operant behavior. His theory consisted of operant conditioning or learning by consequences as its major concept. As he was not the first to approach the subject of operant conditioning, he labeled his philosophy, radical behaviorism to separate him from the others who had approached the same topic.(Pierce & Cheney, 2004, p. 9) His analysis of behavior brought him to the conclusion that behavior was influenced by the environment and organisms responded in two fashions – emotional response and by the involuntary response of the nervous system. In order to change an organism’s behavior there must be a new stimulus introduced to the surrounding environment that influenced both areas of human nature. Operant behavior was learned via a series of reinforcements to strengthen the new response. (Staats, 1996, p. 40-41)Skinner’s approach was to offer reinforcement when the organism displayed the defined behavior over a period of time and on a number of occasions  œ the process of operant conditioning. His theory stated that in order to obtain the appropriate response the conditioning process must determine â€Å"the strength of response. † (Staats, 1996, p. 58) Though many of his peers advocated punishment as a deterrent to unwanted behavior Skinner did not agree. His negative response consisted of the simple process of deprivation. (Staats, 1996, p. 58) Through a series of animal experiments, Skinner continued to validate his theory.The Skinner Box was his primary tool for his study of operational conditioning. He designed various versions of the tool to accommodate various species – for example, pigeons could peck to obtain the reinforcement and a rat could not. If the animal performed the desired behavior, a positive reinforcement was automatically provided, if not it was withheld. The box allowed him to study operant conditioning and the contingencies of reinforcement. (Leonard, 2002, p. 98) In the 1950’s Skinnerâ₠¬â„¢s behavior analysis research began to focus on teaching machines.In the 1958 article titled Teaching Machines: From the Experimental Study of Learning Comes Devices Which Arrange Optimal Conditions for Self-Instruction, Skinner stated that the motivation to obtain more education existed and in order to meet that demand we needed to do more than continue to build more schools and train more teachers. He believed that â€Å"Education must become more efficient. † (Skinner, 1958, p. 969) He created teaching devices that arranged specific â€Å"contingencies of reinforcement† that rewarded â€Å"specific forms of behavior. † (Skinner, 1958, p. 970)Once the desired behavior was exerted Skinner was convinced that the â€Å"resulting behavior can be maintained in strength for long periods of time. † (Skinner, 1958, p. 970) Later in the article he addressed specific subjects, â€Å"Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex forms of behavior. I n other subjects-for example, arithmetic- responses must be brought under the control of appropriate stimuli. † (Skinner, 1958, p. 970) Skinner’s programmed instruction consists of three phases:1) Small steps – obtain small information in a step-by-step fashion.2) Overt responding – provide a clear response to generate reinforcement.3) Self-pacing – working through programmed activity at his or her own pace. (Leonard, 2002, p. 90)In 1958 Skinner incorporated his reinforcement methods into the first class of programmed instruction. (Lysaught & Williams, 1963, p. 10) In a speech titled Psychology in the year 2000 given in 1968 to the Department of Psychology of Wayne University, he not only expressed his opinion of the school system prior to his studies, he addressed what he believed to be the future of America’s schools.He believed that prior to his research that â€Å"educational psychology was primarily a matter of measurement. Mental tests dominated the field. Teaching was generally left to common sense. † (Skinner, 2004, p. 210) He felt that the students â€Å"studied because he feared the consequences of not studying. † (Skinner, 2004, p. 210) He went on to conclude that student’s slow recognition was a result of teachers’ inappropriate approach to teaching. (Skinner, 2004, p. 210)He felt that, â€Å"A good program is simply a reorganization of what is to be learned in such a way that the student is maximally reinforced for learning it in positive ways rather than as a means of escape from undesirable consequences. † (Skinner, 2004, p. 210) Though primitive at the time of inception, over the years and combined with modern technology our students are benefiting from his methods by way of computer-based teaching. Programs have been developed to teach spelling, reading, math, and a number of other subjects, as well as colleges and Universities offer certain Internet-based courses.The program models vary; some programs will not allow the student to advance without giving the appropriate response, others will offer more information to guide students to the appropriate response and universities are creating virtual classrooms that students have access to tools that perform a variety of functions. Though the approach has received mixed feedback, teachers are able to provide more of a one-on-one teaching, as well as further the efficiency of classroom procedure and in the case of universities, students are able to enjoy the convenience of online courses. (â€Å"Programmed Instruction,† 2004)In conclusion, Skinner’s controversial approach to psychology changed the approach to behavior modification and his methods have shaped the educational setting. Student behavior has improved; as positive reinforcement is applied to the learning process builds confidence and a willingness to comply. Students of all ages are able to progress at their own pace, which pr ovides and individualized education plan. College students report that they are able to attend college courses and maintain full time employment due to the convenience of online schooling.Skinner’s over all concern for providing an environment to influence behavior combined with technology creates a setting that is unique to each student and he or she can learn at a pace appropriate for the individual.ReferencesPierce, W. D. , & Cheney, C. D. (2003). Behavior Analysis and Learning. Mawwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching Machines: From the experimental study of learning come devices which arrange optimal conditions for self-instruction. Science, 128, 969 – 977.Skinner, B. F. (2004). PSYCHOLOGY IN THE YEAR 2000 Harvard University. JOURNAL OF THE EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR, 81, 207 – 213.Programmed Instruction. (2004). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed. ). New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=101265989.Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning Theories, A to Z. Westport, CT: Oryx Press. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=101313032Lysaught, J. P. , & Williams, C. A. (1963). A Guide to Programmed Instruction. New York: Wiley. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=14538707.Pierce, W. D. , & Cheney, C. D. (2004). Behavior Analysis and Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=104826262.Skinner, B. F. (2003). Chapter 14 Radical Behaviorism. In An Introduction to Theories of Personality (pp. 311-339).Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=104786837.Staats, A. W. (1996). Behavior and Personality: Psychological Behaviori sm. New York: Springer. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=101935859.Todd, J. T. & Morris, E. K. (Eds. ). (1995). Modern Perspectives on B. F. Skinner and Contemporary Behaviorism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Retrieved December 30, 2006, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=o&d=24397049.

Managed Health Care

Within the past thirty to forty years, the scope and cost of health care coverage and services has drastically changed, altering the manner in which health care was previously managed. There are several factors that have affected the cost of health care coverage over the course of the past two to three decades. One of these factors is the introduction and rapidly increasing enrollment in managed health care insurance plans. Managed care health insurance plans can, in most cases, help to alleviate the rising costs of effective medical coverage. Another important factor that has affected health care costs is the invention and implementation of new medical technologies. As prominent researchers and economic analysts have discovered, there is a distinct and direct correlation between advancing medical technologies and rising health care costs. Medical innovation has been proven time and again to be an important determinant of health care cost growth. It would appear that managed care health insurance plans, which attempt to lower health care costs, and highly expensive new medical innovations and procedures are at cross purposes, pulling against one another in very different directions. Market-level comparisons have found the cost growth of health care in markets with greater managed care penetration to be generally slower than that of non-managed care health insurance markets. However, managed care is unlikely to prevent the share of gross domestic product spent on health care from rising unless the cost-increasing nature of new medical technologies changes. Managed care health insurance plans differ greatly from indemnity fee-for-service, or FFS, insurance plans. Since the early 1970's, rapidly growing enrollment in managed care health insurance plans has transformed the health insurance market in the United States. Virtually nonexistent in most markets three decades ago, managed care health plans covered 63 percent of the nation's employees by 1994. Managed care incorporates a range of features that allow the insurer greater influence in the process of care delivery. Managed care plans aggressively contract for lower prices from physicians and hospitals and attempt to constrain the use of health care services by monitoring providers and changing provider incentives. Health insurance providers that operate under the fee-for-service concept grant the consumer much more freedom of choice concerning doctors and treatment programs, thus freeing the consumer of any feelings of discontent with â€Å"interfering† insurance companies. Consumers of indemnity plans, however, pay a price for that freedom by way of drastically higher rates and little knowledgeable input on doctors, specialists and nearby hospitals that will fit their particular needs. Many of today's health insurance consumers choose to place their trust in a managed care insurance company, relying on the expertise of the provider to support and facilitate their various medical treatments and needs. Health maintenance organizations, commonly known as HMOs, have emerged as the clear leader of managed care providers. Other types of managed care plans include preferred provider organizations, point of service plans and managed indemnity plans. Most studies focus on HMOs and so do not describe variation in the type of HMO or in the extent of the level of management in non-HMO plans. HMOs have effectively reduced health care expenditures (Scheid, 2003) A natural assumption would be that the quality of care would be lowered as insurance rates go down and remain reasonable and affordable. However, these cost savings have been achieved, according to most evidence, without significant reductions in the quality of care (Bransford, 2006). This suggests that managed care health insurance plans -HMOs in particular- tend to reduce inefficiencies in the health care system. In fact, a study that examined changes in hospital expenses in California found as much as a forty-four percent slower rate of hospital care cost growth in markets with high HMO penetration relative to markets with low HMO penetration (Cooper, & Gottlieb, 2000) There are two main types of services that managed care health insurance companies use to categorize and label their treatments and procedures. These categories are known as complementary services and substitutive services. These two terms apply to new innovations in medical technology and the amount of money spent to provide the technology to the consumer. Complementary services are those whose use increases with the use of the new technology. Complementary services are attractive to the consumer, who, understandably, desires the latest, most effective medical technology to treat themselves and their loved ones. For example, suppose an improvement were to be made in the field of diagnostic imaging. This improvement could provide clearer, higher quality images, thus leading to more favorable surgery outcomes. The likelihood of a better surgical outcome may result in more individuals electing to receive surgical treatment. The development of this new technology in diagnostic imaging would, no doubt, have been highly expensive. Also, the costs associated with an illness in which there is an increased need for surgery are usually quite high. If an innovation leads to greater use of complementary services, expenditures raise more than would be predicted by simply examining the direct expenditures on the innovation. In this case, imaging and surgery are complementary technologies. This example suggests that the use of complementary services may increase the costs associated with use of new innovations by as much as fifty percent. Substitutive services, on the other hand, differ in that they are not provided because of the use of new technologies. The savings associated with the avoidance of these services offset the costs of the technological innovations and complementary services. If the innovation results in improved health outcomes, substitution away from services that would have been consumed later may also occur. It is also hoped that this type of substitution would accompany most preventive services and many other innovations that yield a reduction in morbidity in the long-run. Evidence suggests that medical innovation has led to higher expenditures on health care services. It appears that if the rising cost of health care that results from technological advances remain unchecked by managed care, the effect of technological progress will tend to offset any cost savings achieved by managed care through lower prices or lower use of established services. Factors such as population increases, extended life expectancies and overall inflation have contributed to rising health care costs. However, studies have proven that important advances in specific areas of medical technology have had the most intense effect on health care costs. This finding still applies when it is considered in terms of managed care health insurance plans to a certain undeniable extent (Scheid, 2003). Studies have been conducted during many periods over the course of the past several decades, focusing on substantial increases in health care costs in direct correlation to particular medical procedures and fields. Among these procedures and fields are child birth, radiation therapy, coronary bypass surgery, and nuclear medicine and cancer treatments. For example, the innovation of cesarean sections used during problematic child deliveries has increased health care costs. The various medical personnel must all be compensated for their time and labor: the anesthesiologists, the surgeon, the nurses, etc. Also raising health care costs are fetal monitoring and ultrasound techniques. In the case of breast and other cancers, radiation therapy, as well as combination therapies that include chemotherapy has contributed to rising health care costs. One field of medical practice which has become notorious for being costs-increasing is the study and treatment of heart attacks. In the treatment of heart attacks, the prime cost-increasing technologies were the introduction of intra-coronary streptokinase infusion and coronary bypass surgery. A study performed by Glenn P. Mays, Gary Claxton, and Justin White; (2004), using Medicare claims from 1994 to 2001, report a four percent annual increase in the average reimbursement for treating elderly heart attack patients. They attribute the majority of this increase to the diffusion of new technologies for performing invasive revascularization procedures. Over the period of the study, cardiac catheterization rates rose from eleven percent to forty-one percent of heart attack patients. Bypass rates rose from five percent to thirteen percent, and angioplasty rates rose from one percent to twelve percent. The population studied by Glenn P. Mays, Gary Claxton, and Justin White; (2004) was overwhelmingly enrolled in traditional FFS Medicare; therefore, any finding must represent a spillover. Furthermore, they do not address the likelihood of receiving a related service, coronary bypass surgery, so we have an incomplete picture of how practice patterns change over the period of time studied. Different approaches are used to determine the impact of new technologies and innovations on health care costs. One approach, called the affirmative approach, focuses on individual technologies or diseases. This approach suffers from an inability to access the aggregate impact of technology on cost growth. The body of evidence suggests that the impact of technology varies by disease. One study notes that in certain areas, technology clearly lowers costs, particularly when that technology facilitates complete cure or prevention of a disease (Scheid, 2003). One example of this type of innovation is the Salk-Sabin polio vaccine, which is inexpensive to develop and manufacture and almost completely eliminates the high costs of polio treatment. Another approach that is used to examine the effect of technology on health care costs is known as the residual approach. This approach views technological advances as being the sole reason for rising health care costs simply because the innovations are so expensive that there must be a method of which to pay for the invention and further development of the technology. The differences between health care givers and the companies that provide the health care insurance have blurred substantially. A decade ago managed health care organizations was referred to as an alternative delivery systems. However, today in the United States, managed health care organizations are now the leading form of health insurance coverage. Every individuals currently living in the United States of America has a need for affordable and accessible health care coverage. Over the last thirty to forty years, the extent and cost of health care coverage have significantly changed; therefore, altering the method in which health care is managed. The demand for health care has expanded because of changes in the age population, increasing incomes, and improvement in medical technology. Elderly people demand more health care and health care systems must supply the expected quality if health care. The improvement of medical technology has largely increased treatments to enable people to have a good quality of life. The resource factors such as land, labor, income, capital, goods and services cause shifts in the managed care. The increase in the health care price reduces people's income and this means that the health care price is more expensive in comparing to other goods and services. An increase in income leads to an increase in demand and vice versa. However, a decrease in income will reduce the amount of health care treatments. The relationship between price and quality of health care demanded indicates the quantity of health care services that can be obtained at conceivable price. A change in price leads to a movement along the demand curve. For example if the price of eye surgery rose significantly, then people would seek another alternative of treatment. This would lead to a fall in the demand, but when income or prices of health care services change, the demand curve will shift. If the level of cost changes then the supply curve will shift. For example if the doctors or nurses income increases, this process will increase health care cost. Managed care plans substituted the traditional fee for service system. The plans provide a number of economic incentives for health care providers, patients, and payers to cut health care cost. The increased enrollment will reduce the health care expenditures through reduction of price and quantity. Currently, the new plans are popular among public sector of health care programs such as Medicaid and Medicare. Medicaid and Medicare is a joint federal and state-run program that provides health coverage to selected low-income individuals who cannot provide their own health insurance and senior citizens over 65 years of age. Government intervention contributes to an increase of health care cost and creates inefficiencies, while big employers are cutting benefits, demanding higher contributions from their employees and saying there is more of the same to come, smaller and medium-sized employers offering health care plans dropped in 2002. People might demand a better Medicare of Medicaid program, but they will be affected by escalating health care costs. The private insurers will be under even more pressure, as they will have to provide policies tailored to the needs and budgets of their clients. They will increasingly have to keep costs down by using their bargaining power. People in this country demand health care because they want to be healthy. This trend has been fueling managed health care systems for the last forty years. Changes in health care structure are influenced in this country by macroeconomic conditions and the standard of living. Government agencies have a tremendous impact on regulating and controlling of health care spending. Changes in age structure, increasing real incomes, and improvements in medical technology have all fueled this desire for better health care. References Bransford, C.L. (2006). The Exercise of Authority by Social Workers in a Managed Mental Health Care Organization: A Critical Ethnography. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 17 (2), 63-85. Cooper, C. C., & Gottlieb, M. C. (2000) Ethical issues with managed care: Challenges facing counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 28, 179-236. Glenn P. Mays, Gary Claxton, and Justin White; 2004; Managed Care Rebound?   Recent Changes in Health Plans' Cost Containment Strategies: (Health Affairs, August 11, 2004) Scheid, T.L. (2003). Managed care and the rationalization of mental health services: Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44 (2), 146-161.